Auxiliary verbs GÁ, LÉTA, KUNNA

In earlier posts, the conjugations of the following auxiliary verbs have been explored:

1. (post) HÀVA (have), WÉSA (be: active voice), WRDA (be: passive voice/ become),  
2. (post) SKILLE (shall/ will),  
3. (post) MOTA (must), MÜGE (may/ can/ be able or allowed to), WILLA (will/ desire).

Now we will look at three auxiliary verbs that are less frequently used, but still each occur 20 to 30 times each in the samples, analysed so far:

1) GÁ (go, begin, proceed to); note inf. also GÁN (1x), GVNGGA (1x), GÁNA (3x), GÁNE (1x)
Conjugations found in samples:
present sing. GA; plur. GAN (both once only)/ past sing. GVNG; plur. GVNGON/ perfect GVNGEN (10x), GVNGON (2x), GUNGON (2x), GONGGEN (1x)

• English: all forms present: go/ past: went/ perfect: gone
• Dutch: present sing. ga, gaat, gaat; plur. gaan/ past sing. ging; plur. gingen/ perfect gegaan
• German: present sing. gehe, gehst, geht; plur. gehen, geht, gehen/ past sing. ging, gingst, ging; plur. gingen, gingt, gingen/ perfect gegangen
• Frisian: present sing. gean, giest, giet; plur. geane/ past sing. gie, giest, gie or gong, gongst, gong or gyng, gyngst, gyng; plur. giene(n) or gongen or  gyngen/ perfect gien or gongen
  

 
2) LÉTA (let, allow): no separate forms to distinguish present from past
Conjugations found in samples:
IK LÉT (once only); ER LÉT; HJA LÉTON/ LÉTA (each once only)/ perfect: LÉTEN

• English: all forms present, past and perfect: let
• Dutch: present sing. laat; plur. laten/ past sing. liet; plur. lieten/ perfect gelaten
• German: present sing. lasse, lässt, lässt; plur. lassen, lasst, lassen/ past sing. ließ, ließest, ließ; plur. ließen, ließt, ließen/ perfect gelassen
• Frisian: present sing. lit, litst, lit; plur. litte/ past sing. liet, lietst, liet; plur. lieten/ perfect litten

3) KUNNA (can/ be able to; sometimes 'know')
Conjugations found in samples: 
present sing. IK KÀN (4x)/ KEN (1x), THV KÀNST (3x), ER KÀN (1x); plur. HJA KÀNNATH/ KENNATH/ KÀNATH (all 1x);
past sing. IK KV (1x), THV KOSTE (1x), ER KVSTE/ KOSTE (both 1x)/ KVN (1x)/ KV (6x) [note: KVNDE only in text 9c: 3x]; plur. WI KVSTE (1x); HJA KVNDON (1x)/ KOSTE (2x);
No perfect, nor infinitive in samples.

• English: all forms present can, past could and perfect does not exist (in stead been able to is used)
• Dutch: present sing. kan, kunt, kan; plur. kunnen/ past sing. kon; plur. konden/ perfect gekund (note kennen 'to know' is a different verb in standardised Dutch; not in some of the dialects!)
• German: present sing. kann, kanst, kann; plur. können, könnt, können/ past sing. konnte, konntest, konnte; plur. konnten, konntet, konnten/ perfect gekonnt
• Frisian: present sing. kin, kinst, kin; plur. kinne/ past sing. koe, koest, koe; plur. koene(n)/ perfect kinnen/ kind (note kenne 'to know' is a different verb in standardised Frisian, but its past tense is the same as that of kinne!)
  

= = =

Observations and conclusions to be added.

Auxiliary verbs MOTA, MÜGE, WILLA

As is the case with most auxiliary verbs, the various modern cognates can have (somewhat) different meanings and uses. The verb 'may', for example means 'to be able' and can be used as auxiliary of prediction; 'will' is a future auxiliary; the Dutch 'mogen' means 'to be allowed' (archaic 'vermogen' is as 'may'), and 'willen'/ 'wollen' means 'to wish/ desire', etc.

English German Dutch Frisian Danish Norse Swedish

must müssen moeten moatte måtte måtte måste

may mögen mogen meie maj mai maj

will wollen willen wolle ville ville vilja

= = = 

1a. MOTA present

FRYAS**	English	German	Dutch*	Frisian*
IK MOT	all conjug.:	ich muss	sing.:	ik moat
THV MOST	must	du musst	moet	do moatst
ER MOT		er muss		hy moat
WI MOTON		wir müssen	plur.:	plur.:
-		ihr müsst	moeten	moatte
HJA MOTON/ MOTA		sie müssen

* in Dutch, 2nd person sing. je/jij and plur. jullie are informal, formal is u/U with verb conjug. as in sing.; in Frisian do (sing.) and jim (plur.) are informal (like German du and ihr), formal is jo (like German Sie, with capital and verb conjug. as 3rd person plural) with verb conjug. as plur.; other Dutch personal pronouns are: ik (I), hij/zij/ze (he/she), wij/we (we), zij/ze (they); other Frisian pers. pronouns plur.: se/sy/hja/hju (she), wy (we) and hja/sy (they).
** ER and HI are both used for 'he', HJU for 'she'; in text 16d (almost exclusively), SE is used for 'she' and 'they'; TE is used besides the more common THV (2nd pers. sing.), J, I and JO(W) is used for 2nd person singular and plural; whether sing. or plur. is ment, is not always clear, as is the case with Dutch and Frisian polite/formal forms 'u'/ 'U' and 'jo'.

1b. MOTA past

FRYAS	English	German	Dutch	Frisian
-	-	ich musste	sing.:	sing.:
-	-	du musstest	moest	moast
ER MOST(E)	-	er musste
WI MOSTON*	-	wir mussten	plur.:	plur.:
J MOSTE**	-	ihr musstet	moesten	moasten
HJA MOSTON***	-	sie mussten

* 1 out of 4: MOSTE/ ** 1 out of 4: MOSTEN/ 2 out of 11: MOSTE 

2a. MÜGE present

FRYAS	English	German	Dutch	Frisian
IK MÉI	all conjug.:	ich mag	sing.:	ik mei
THV MÉI*	may	du magst	mag	do meist
ER MÉI**		er mag		hy mei
WI MÜGE/-ON		wir mögen	plur.:	plur.:
I MÜGE***		ihr mögt	mogen	meie
HJA MÜGE****		sie mögen

* 1 out of 5: MÜGTH/ ** 2/17 MACH/ *** only once/ **** 1/7 MÜGATH, 1/7 MÜGON

2b. MÜGE past

FRYAS	English	German	Dutch	Frisian
IK MACHT	all conjug.:	ich mochte	sing.:	ik mocht
-	might	du mochtest	mocht	do mochtst
ER MACHT(E)*		er mochte		hy mocht
WI MACHTON		wir mochten	plur.:	plur.:
-		ihr mochtet	mochten	mochten
HJA MACHTON**		sie mochten

* 6 out of 18: MACHT, 9/18 MACHTE, 3/18 MOCHT/ ** 4/11 MACHTE

3a. WILLA present

FRYAS	English	German	Dutch	Frisian
IK WIL	all conjug.:	ich will	ik wil	ik wol
THV WILST	will	du willst	jij wilt	do wolst
HI WIL		er will	hij wil	hy wol
WI WILLATH			plur.:	plur.:
J WILLE*			willen	wolle
HJA WILLE/ -ATH

* only once

3b. WILLA past

FRYAS	English	German	Dutch	Frisian
IK WILDE	all conjug.:	ich wollte	sing.:	ik woe
-	would	du wolltest	wilde	do woest
HI WILDE		er wollte		hy woe
WI WILDON*		wir wollten	plur.:	plur.:
-		ihr wolltet	wilden	woene(n)
HJA WILDON**		sie wollten

* 1 out of 3: WILDE/ ** 4/12 WILDE

= = =

Observations and conclusions to be added.

Auxiliary verb SKILLE

(Note: infininitve 'SKILLA' or 'SKILLE' is a reconstruction based on other verbs; it does not appear in the OLB.)
Although the following N-European varieties are all obviously cognates, they are not all used in the same way:

• shall - English (mostly deontic modality; in past tense also epistemic)
• sille - Frisian (mostly future tense; English: will)
• zullen - Dutch (mostly future tense)
• sollen - German (mostly deontic modality; also epistemic?)
• skola - Swedish (presens all 'skall'; preteritum all 'skulle'; perfect 'skolat'; can also mean to school)

FRYAS*	English	German	Dutch*	Frisian*
IK SKIL	all conjug.:	ich soll	ik zal	ik sil
THV SKILST	shall	du sollst	jij zult	do silst
ER SKIL		er soll	hij zal	hy sil
WI SKILUN		wir sollen	plur.:	plur.:
I SKILE**		ihr sollt	zullen	sille
HJA SKILUN		sie sollen

* see notes about personal pronouns and formal/polite 2nd person in next post/ **only once in samples

FRYAS	English	German	Dutch	Frisian
IK SKOL(D(E))	all conjug.:	ich sollte	sing.:	ik soe
-	should	du solltest	zou	do soest
ER SKOLDE*		er sollte		hy soe
WI SKOLDON		wir sollten	plur.:	plur.:
I SKOLDE**		ihr solltet	zouden	soene(n)
HJA SKOLDE***		sie sollten

* SKOLD in 4 out of 31 cases
** only once
*** SKOLDON in 3 out of 17 cases

In the samples, some of the verbs most often supported by SKILUN are:

• 16x WERTHA (become, be: passive voice)
• 14x KVMA (come)
• 8x HÀVA (have) 
• 8x WÉSA (be: active voice)
• 6x LÉTA (let)
• 4x BILÍWA (remain, stay; Dutch/ German: blijven/ bleiben)
• 4x NIMMA (take; Dutch/ German: nemen/ nehmen)

Sample definition for database noun-verb units

In order to study verbs, grammar and syntax of the various texts within the Oera Linda-book, a database is being created, consisting of all basic sentences (incl. dependent clauses) in various samples (currently together 41% of the whole OLB). All samples have a length between 4,200 and 5,900 characters (spaces and periods excluded).

The current samples in the database are:
[added July 2019: 2abc, 3ab, 6-7 // note the old chapter numbers were still used here; * column "new" has new chapter numbers when changed]

sample	new*	from	to
1ab	-	001/02 THRITTICH JÉR ÀFTERE...	005/07 ... RÉD IS VPFOLGATH
2abc	2a-e	005/30 THIT STAND VPPA THA...	011/11 ... JRTHA. JRTHA SÍ
3ab	-	015/01 THÀT SEND THA ÉWA...	021/14 ... INVRET ÉLLE LÁND
4d	4f	033/22 THÁ NYHELLÉNJA...	039/05 ... AS VNFRÁNA UT
6-7	-	045/01 HWÀT HIR BOPPA...	050/18 ... STÀRIKSTE BURCH IS
8b12	8bc	053/15 ANDA ALDERGÁMVDE...	057/32 ... NÉF INKA NINMER
9a	9abc	062/08 563 JÉR NÉI ALDLAND...	068/18 ... NÔSE OMME LÉID
11ab	-	079/12 HO VSA DÉNAMARKA...	085/11 ... WÁK WÁK WÁK
13e2	13i	108/28 ÉR EN BURCHFÁM...	113/21 ... BY THA STJURAR FÁRE
14ab	-	113/22 MIN NÔM IS FRÉTHORIK...	118/31 ... LIF TO BIHALDANE
14d1	14d	120/15 NEI THÀT WI...	125/05 ... ÀND WÉPNE FÁRA
14d2	14e	125/05 AMONG THA FÉLO...	130/20 ...N SÉEN HROPA
15b2	15c	136/08 16 WÁRA 100 JÉR...	141/23 ... TVANG VP JRTHA SA
16b1	16b	144/17 NV WIL IK...	150/19 ... IN SIN STÉD KOREN
16c	16e	158/11 THÁ WRALDA BERN...	163/9 ...ÔTHER MANHIS STÁT
16d	16f	163/15 PANGAB THAT IS...	168/19 ... JOW LJUDGÉRT
19bc	-	198/19 ANT NORTHENDE FON...	204/32 ... ÀND NÉDLIK WÉRE

Example (1) of selecting noun-verb units (noun bold, verb underlined, perfect/infinitive italic):

NÉAN (ANDERE HELLÉNJA). HI HELPTH MY HÜGJA (THAT ER EN SLACH FON MÀNNISKA OVIR JRTHA OMME DWÁLTH. (THÉR EVEN LIK HI IN KÀRKA ÀND HOLA HÉMA.) (THÉR AN TJUSTER FROTA). THACH NAVT AS HI. VMB VS FON MÛSA ÀND ÔRA PLÀGA TO HELPANE. MEN RENKA TO FORSINA. THA ÔRA MÀNNISKA HJARA WITSKIP TO RÁWÁNE (TILTHJU HJA THAM TO BÉTRE MÜGE FÁTA) VMB ER SLÁVONA FON TO MÁKJANDE ÀND HJARA BLOD UT TO SÛGANE. (ÉVEN AS VAMPÍRA DVA)).

Noun-verb units:

hellénja andere (Hellénja answered)	: sing. past
hi helpth hügja (he helps to remember)	: sing. present	/ inf.
hja müge fáta (they may/ can seize/ catch)	: plur. present	/ inf.
en slach dwálth (a kind wanders)	: sing. present
thér frota (who gnaw)	: plur. present
thér héma (who live/ have their home)	: plur. present
vampíra dva (leaches do)	: plur. present

Infinites, not part of of noun-verb unit (added in database, but not counted):

forsina, helpane, mákjande, ráwane, sûgane

Example (2)

IN HJARA TSJODIS HÉD SEND HJA TOGVNGEN ÀND HÀVON ÔTHERA TÁLA FORSVNNEN (TILTHJU HJA HÉMLIK MACHTE SPRÉKA IN ÀJENWARTHA FON ALREK ÔTHERUM). VR ALLE BOSA THINGA ÀND VR ALLE VNWÉRTHLIKA THINGA (SVNDER THÀT STEMLÉTH HJAM VRRÉDA MOCHT NACH SKÁMRÁD HJARA GELÁT VRDERVA).

 Noun-verb units:

hja send togvngen (they have proceeded)	: plur. present	/ perfect
(hja) hàvon forsvnnen (they have invented)	: plur. present	/ perfect
hja machte spréka (they could speak)	: plur. past	/ inf.
stemléth mocht vrréda (stammer could betray)	: sing. past	/ inf.
skámrád (mocht) vrderva (blush could taint)	: sing. past	/ inf.

(note: only the pers. prons. in noun-verb units)
	(note: only counted when part of noun-verb unit)

Different spelling and style of Pangab report

On page 120, Fréthorik Oera Linda introduces the report of Ljudgért, describing how king Alexander hired the service of Frya navigators and how a fleet eventually migrated back from India and Greece to the land of their forefathers (paragraphs 14d1-d2): "Liudgerd, the rear admiral of Wichard, became my ally and later my friend. From his diary I got the following history";

Later, on page 163, Fréthorik's son Koneréd adds a text (par. 16d), suggesting it was written by the same Ljudgért: "Among my father's papers, I found a letter, written by Liudgerd the Gerdman. Omitting some parts which only concern my father, I put the rest to good use here."
However, style and spelling of the two texts are significantly different, which will be demonstrated below.

In the following analysis four samples of text will be compared:
I.  'Pangab' (16d) without introduction: [163/15 PANGAB THAT IS... – 168/19 ... JOW LJUDGÉRT]
II.  'Fleet' (14d1-d2) without introduction: [120/15 NEI THÀT WI... – 130/20 ...N SÉEN HROPA]
III. 'Other': everything not included in any of the samples
IV. 'Samples': total of other samples 1ab, 4d, 8b12, 9a, 11ab, 13e2, 14ab, 15b2, 16b1, 16c, 19bc

1) spelling differences and sometimes a common word that does not exist anywhere else in the OLB (WELKE/-A):

2) relative to number of basic sentences (units), I. 'Pangab' has of all samples:

• lowest nr. of personal pronouns: 24% (II. 'Fleet': 46%; IV. 'Samples': 36%)
• lowest nr. verbs in past tense: 1,6% (II: 84%; IV: 61%)
• lowest nr. verbs in singular: 34% (II: 68%; IV: 61%)
• lowest nr. verb + infinitive: 13% (II: 28%; 24%)

[graphics showing deviation from average of samples will be added]
[discussion will be added]

Perfect WÉSA varieties

table with number of occurrances in the whole manuscript

The new database of verbs in the Oera Linda-book makes possible stylistic varieties between its various texts more easily distinguishable. The following is an example of an exploration that was inspired by such a variety.

The perfect of WÉSA (to be) has two varieties in the Oera Linda-book: WÉST (as in Dutch and Frisian is geweest/ haw west) and WÉSEN (as in German: ist gewesen) and is combined with a conjugation of WÉSA (as in Dutch and German: ist gewesen/ is geweest) in 25/37 = 68% of the cases, with a conjugation of HÀVA (as in English and Frisian: has been/ haw west) in 12/37 = 32% of the cases.

Summary use of perfect-WÉSA:

Authors who (deliberately?) used a different perfect for singular vs. plural:

• 13e1/e2 - Apollonia: sing. IS WÉST (2x) vs. plur. SEND WÉSEN; however, she was inconsequent twice: sing. HÉD WÉST and plur. WÉRON WÉST
• 14d1/d2 - Liudgerd 1*: sing. HÉDE WÉST (2x) vs. plur. HÉDE WÉSEN
• 16b1/b2/b3 - Conrad: sing. WAS WÉST(3x) vs. plur. WÉRON WÉSEN; however, he was inconsequent once: plur. HÉDE WÉST

* the other text attributed to Liudgerd (16d) was clearly written in a different style.

Authors with more than one, and consequent use:

• 1b/c - Adela and helpers: SÍ (2x), WÉRE, WAS, IS (3x) WÉSEN (all sing.)

Authors with inconsequent use:

• 8b1/c - Treasureburg: WAS, WÉRE WÉST vs. HÉDE WÉST (all sing.)
• 13b1 - Bruno: HÉDE, IS WÉST / HÉDED, IS WÉSEN (all sing.)
• 13e2 - Apollonia (see above)
• 16b3 - Conrad (see above)

Authors with only one use:

• B. Liko: HÀV WÉST
• 9a1 - Walhallagara: IS WÉST
• 12 - Adelbrost: IS WÉST
• 13b3 - ode (by Bruno?): IS WÉST
• 13d - on writing felt: IS WÉST
• 14a - Frederick: HÉDE WÉST
• 16c-1 - intro by unknown: HÉDE WÉST
• 16c-2 - Gosa: SEND WÉST (plur.)
• 18 - Rika: HÀVON WÉST (plur.)
• 19b - unknown: WAS WÉST
  

  
Oera Linda fragments (in order of appearance )

[00b] B - Liko
IK HÀV BI THAM ET HOVE WÉST
[001] 1b - Adela
THÀT IK THRJV JÉR BURCHFÁM WÉSEN SÍ
[001] 1b - Adela
AS IK EN WRENTLIKE FOLKSMODER WÉSEN WÉRE
[003] 1b - Adela
THÉR WAS HÍR WÉSEN EN HÀRDE LVNGSÍAKTE
[004] 1b - Adela
HO GRAT VS LÁND ÉR WÉSEN SÍ
[005] 1c - helpers Adela
THRJA IS ER SÉKENING WÉSEN
[005] 1c - helpers Adela
FJVWERS IS ER HYRMAN WÉSEN
[005] 1c - helpers Adela
FIF MEL IS ER SÉKENING WÉSEN
[053] 8b1 - Treasureburg
ÉNES WAS ER HÉRMAN WÉST
[055] 8b1 - Treasureburg
THA WODIN EN STÛT WÉI WÉST HÉDE
[060] 8c - Treasureburg
THAT WÉRE BÉTRE WÉST
[064] 9a1 - Walhallagara
NÉIDAM THÀT ... VS GRÁTESTE BIDRIV WÉST IS
[089] 12 - Adelbrost
THJU FÉRE THÉRA IS WÉST
[091] 13b1 - Bruno
THER SKRÍWER WÉSEN IS
[091] 13b1 - Bruno
HJU HÉDE IMMERTHE WÉNICH WÉST
[092] 13b1 - Bruno
IS HJU TOFARA HÍR BURCHFÁM WÉST
[092] 13b1 - Bruno
TIL HJUDDÉGA HÉDED ER FROD WÉSEN
[095] 13b3 - ode (by Bruno?)
HJU IS IMMER THJU [FORSTE] WÉST
[105] 13d - on writing felt
NIS THIN HUS THUS NAVT STERK NOCH WÉST
[108] 13e1 - Apollonia
SEND HJA SJVGUN JÉR WÁKANDA WÉSEN
[108] 13e1 - Apollonia
IS HWA THRJU JÉR FÁM WÉST
[109] 13e2 - Apollonia
MIN FÁRT IS ALINGEN THÉRE RÉNE WÉST
[109] 13e2 - Apollonia
ÉR WÉRON THÉR MÁR WÉST
[111] 13e2 - Apollonia
ÉR HÉD IK ... TO THÉRE BURCH ... WÉST
[116] 14a - Frederick
THÉR THA LJUDGARDA WÉST HÉDE
[123] 14d1 - Liudgerd 1*
HWÉR THJU STRÉTE ÉR WÉST HÉDE
[124] 14d1 - Liudgerd 1*
SÁ THA KÉNINGGAR FON THIRIS ÉR WÉSEN HÉDE
[127] 14d2 - Liudgerd 1*
THÉR I ÉR WÉST HÉDE
[145] 16b1 - Conrad
GOSA (SÉIDER) WAS FÉRSJANDE WÉST
[146] 16b1 - Conrad
BI SIN LÉVE WAS ER VRSTE GRÉVA ... WÉST
[148] 16b1 - Conrad
DÁNÁ WÉRON HJA NÉI FRISO WÉSEN
[154] 16b2 - Conrad
NAS THÉR NIMMAN SÁ BIFÁMED ... WÉST
[156] 16b3 - Conrad
THA HJA THÉR EN STÛT WÉST HÉDE
[157] 16c-1 - intro by unknown
SIN WIF (SÉIDER) THÉR FÁM WÉST HÉDE
[161] 16c-2 - Gosa
NV SEND WI ALSA MILD WÉST
[190] 18 - Rika
HÀVON HJA THET FORMA NAVT FVLDÉN WÉST
[201] 19b - unknown (Askar age)
ÁSKAR WAS OFTEN MITH WÉST

Auxiliary verbs HÀVE, WÉSA, WRDA

The three main verbs used as auxiliaries to support a perfect are (with English/ German/ Dutch/ Frisian version):

• 44% HÀVA* - have/ haben/ hebben/ hawwe
• 42% WÉSA - be/ sein/ zijn/ wêze
• 14% WRDANE/ WERTHANE - (no English cognate?)/ werden/ worden/ wurde (meaning: become/ be in passive voice)

* infinitive also HÀVE, HÁ, HÀ

This is only a first exploration. More details and conclusions will be provided later.

Notes about personal pronouns: ER and HI are both used for 'he', often shortened as R and I; K is short for IK. HJU is used for 'she'. Next to THV and J, also I and JO(W) are used; WI is also spelled WY. THV is often left out or merged, for example: HETHSTE, WILSTV, MOSTV, ACHSTV, SKILSTV etc.

1. HÀVA 
a) conjugation (present):

FRYAS^	English	German	Dutch^	Frisian^
IK HÀV	all conjug.:	ich habe	ik heb	ik haw
THV HÀST*	have	du hast	jij hebt	do hast
ER HETH		er hat	hij heeft	hy hat
WI HÀVE**		wir haben	plur.:	plur.:
J HÀWETH***		ihr habt	hebben	hawwe
HJA HÀVON****		sie haben

^ see notes about personal pronouns and formal/ polite 2nd person in next post
* or HÀSTE/ HESTE
** also HÀVATH, HÀVON
*** only once / possibly, there is no separate plural of 2nd person: sing. and plur. are the same?
**** also HÀVE


b) conjugation (past):

FRYAS	English	German	Dutch	Frisian
IK HÉD(E)*	all conjug.:	ich hatte	sing.:	ik hie
THV -**	had	du hattest	had	do hiest
ER HÉDE		er hatte		hy hie
WI HÉDE***		wir hatten	plur.:	plur.:
J - **		ihr hattet	hadden	hienen
HJA HÉDE****		sie hatten

* only once in combination HÉD.IK which may be short for HÉDE IK.
** no data available, see note at a)
*** sometimes HÉDON
**** HÉDE 59%, HÉDON 41%


c) perfect:

FRYAS	English	German	Dutch	Frisian
HÉDE HÁN/ HAT*	has had	hat gehabt	heeft gehad	haw hân

* both only once


d) imperative:
Not in samples (English: have/ German: hab(t)/ Dutch: heb(t)/ Frisian: ha)


2. WÉSA 
a) conjugation (present):

FRYAS	English	German	Dutch	Frisian
IK BEN*	I am	ich bin	ik ben	ik bin
THV BIST**	you are	du bist	jij bent	do bist
ER IS	he is	er ist	hij is	hy is
WI SEND	plur.:	wir sind	plur.:	plur.:
-	are	ihr seid	zijn	binne
HJA SEND***		sie sind

* also BIN, SÍ (both 2 out of 8)
** or BISTE (3 out of 6)
*** SIND in text 16d [added June 21: sometimes SEN in Apollania's burg]
italic: archaic


b) conjugation (past):

FRYAS	English	German	Dutch	Frisian
IK WAS/ WÉRE	I was	ich war	sing.:	ik wie
- *	you were	du warst	was	do wiest
ER WAS/ WÉRE	he was	er war		hy wie
WI WÉRON**	plur.:	wir waren	plur.:	plur.:
- *	were	ihr wart	waren	wienen
HJA WÉRON**		sie waren

* no data
** sometimes WÉRE


c) perfect:

FRYAS	English	German	Dutch	Frisian
WAS/ HÉDE WÉST/ WÉSEN*	has been	ist gewesen	is geweest	haw west

* WÉSEN (6 out of 19) /conj. HÀVE: (6 out of 19)


d) imperative:

FRYAS	English	German	Dutch	Frisian
WÉS	be	sei(d)	wees(t)	wês

3. WRDANE/ WERTHANE
a) conjugation (no clear distiction between present and past?):

FRYAS	English	German*	Dutch*	Frisian*
IK WRD	-	ich werde/ wurde	ik word/ werd	ik wurd/ waard
-	-	du werdest/ wurdest	2nd and 3rd. person:	do wurdst/ ,,
ER WÀRTH/ WRDE	-	er wird/ wurde	wordt/werd	hy wurdt/ ,,
WI	-	wir werden/ wurden	plur.:	plur.:
-	-	ihr werdet/ wurdet	worden/ werden	wurde/ waarden
HJA WÀRTH(AT)/ WRDE/ WRDON	-	sie werden/ wurden

* present/ past

b) perfect: 
IS WRDEN (German: ist geworden/ Dutch: is geworden/ Frisian: is wurden)

~ ~ ~

Variety of conjugation between the samples will later be explored.